Abstract

In the first years of its existence, the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) only allowed men to study theology for ministry. It took four decades before women were allowed to go for theological training, and the first women who went for theological training were not allowed to be ordained as church ministers. It took another two decades for women to be allowed to be ordained as ministers of Word and Sacrament. In the current dispensation, some women are now doing theological education for ministry and ordination while others are studying theology to work in academia. However, women who study theology in the CCAP remain in a minority and still face challenges in theological education.

Introduction

This paper discusses theological education for women in the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) (hereinafter CCAP) and analyses why women were not allowed to study theology in the early years of the CCAP’s establishment. Theological education is crucial for the ministry formation of pastors and other church workers, as it prepares them for ministry or teaching and research in theological disciplines. The CCAP as a reformed church values the theological education of its ministers, so it equips them with sound doctrine for preaching and teaching. In the initial years of the CCAP, theological education was for ordained ministry only, so only men did theological education. Since women were only allowed to study theology four decades after the CCAP’s establishment, this paper discusses why women were not allowed to study theology earlier. Furthermore, it discusses how the ecumenical movements in the late 1980s influenced churches to allow women to do theological studies for ordination and to work in theological institutions. Finally, it will discuss the challenges that women in the CCAP face in theological institutions today.

Theological Education before and after the Formation of the CCAP 

Two missionary enterprises led to the formation of the CCAP in 1924: the Livingstonia Mission of the Free Church of Scotland, which came to Malawi in 1875, and the Blantyre Mission of the Established Church of Scotland, which came in 1876. (At that time, Malawi was known as the British Nyasaland Protectorate.) David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary and explorer, had urged the churches in Scotland and England to come to Africa to establish Christianity, civilisation, and commerce and to end the slave trade. Following that call, the Scottish missionaries and Anglican missionaries came to Malawi.

The work was too great for these two missionary groups, so they called the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa to join them and concentrate on the central region of Malawi, as the Scotch and Anglicans were already in the north and the south of Malawi. These missionaries saw the need to have local leaders for the church, so in 1894, they started to ordain deacons (Ross, 2013, 65). By 1899, the Livingstonia Mission had established the Overtoun Institute, which offered theological education to the locals. At this time, only men did theological education. Similarly, the Blantyre Mission established the Henry Henderson Institute (HHI) in 1909. It had a primary school, a teachers’ training college, and a theological school. Finally, by 1913, the Nkhoma Mission of the Dutch Reformed Church had a theological school at the Nkhoma Mission Station.

Because they were all reformed and presbyterian, these three missionary enterprises that were working in Malawi decided to form a united church. Thus, the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) was born in 1924. After the establishment of the CCAP, the missions continued to work within presbyteries; each presbytery took over theological training for their ministers separately until the 1960s (Mapala, 2024, 301). Again, theological education was for men only since it was only men who were ordained as ministers.

In 1962, the CCAP synods established a Joint Theological College in Nkhoma to train their ministers for all three synods of the CCAP (Livingstonia, Blantyre, and Nkhoma) (Mapala, 2024, 307). Founding one theological college for the three synods demonstrated their unity as one church. In 1977, the theological college moved to Zomba near the University of Malawi and was thenceforth known as Zomba Theological College. Today, Zomba Theological College has evolved into a university, Zomba Theological University.

Beginning in the 1970s, each synod decided on its own to allow women to do theological training – not for ordination as ministers but to serve in the church, to lead other women. Nkhoma Synod was the first to allow a woman to study theology in the CCAP in the early 1970s. Blantyre and Livingstonia synods followed in 1976 and 1977 respectively. The number of women doing theological education increased at a very slow pace. 

Today, the CCAP is comprised of five synods: Livingstonia, Blantyre, Nkhoma, Harare, and Zambia. They are located across Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In 2024, the CCAP celebrated 100 years of its existence; celebrations were held in Lilongwe, Malawi. 

Why Women’s Study of Theology Was Restricted in the CCAP

As alluded to earlier, women in the CCAP were allowed to study theology in the early 1970s for the purpose of working among fellow women, to teach and guide them in Bible study. In the 1970s, only three women did theological education. It took two decades after women began to be allowed to take theological training before they were allowed to be ordained as ministers in the CCAP. Several factors prevented the CCAP from allowing women to study theology and to be leaders in its formative years. These reasons include the influence of the early missionaries, (mis)interpretations of the Bible, and traditional beliefs and practices.

Influence of early missionaries

The early missionaries who evangelised Malawi and other countries in Africa not only brought Christianity but also their denominational and Western cultural influences. Because the gospel of Jesus Christ is understood variously by the different contexts in which it is received, Europeans had their own cultural version of Christianity. They imported this version to Africa when they came as missionaries. The historically patriarchal theology of the Scottish and Dutch missionaries who established the CCAP contributed to a Malawian church that only permitted men to study theology and lead. The Scottish and Dutch missionaries did not recognize women as equal partners or see that women also had spiritual gifts. This situation was true even in their home churches, where women were not allowed to study theology or be ordained as ministers, elders, or deacons (Phiri, 1997, 43). Similarly, the female missionaries who were deployed to the mission field could only work as teachers in schools and in healthcare (Parsons, 2021, 108). Some female missionaries were wives of ordained ministers, but they were homemakers and provided all-round support to the ministry of their husbands (Parsons, 2021, 108). None of them were ordained as ministers or leaders. (The Church of Scotland started ordaining women as ministers in 1968, 300 years after its establishment. The Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa started ordaining women as ministers in 1990.)

Interpretation of the Bible

The (mis)interpretation of some Biblical texts supported the CCAP’s exclusion of women from leadership positions. According to Mlenga, in the Old Testament, the priests and Levites who served in the temple were all men; therefore, women cannot be church leaders today (Mlenga, 2008, 6). Furthermore, because in the New Testament the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ were all men, and because Jesus Christ did not include a woman among the twelve, women cannot be church leaders (Mlenga, 2008, 6). Finally, as Chifungo points out, misinterpretation of texts in Pauline letters, such as 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 and 1 Timothy 2:11-12, have justified the inferior positions of women in the church (Chifungo, 2014, 9). Sometimes, then, the Bible is used to justify the oppression of vulnerable people, such as people of color and women. 

Yet we see that Jesus Christ did not conform to the religious and cultural beliefs of his time, which were unfavourable to women. Instead, he reacted against the religio-cultural inequalities that were present in Jewish society. He and the entire New Testament actually abolish discrimination against racial minorities, slaves, and women, in both the church and society (Gal 3:28). It took the CCAP decades before it recognized that the church should not bury the God-given gifts of women.

Cultural and traditional beliefs and practices

As European missionaries brought patriarchal practices to Africa, they reinforced traditions that already existed in certain Malawian societies. Cultural beliefs influence the religious life of any society. Cultural beliefs are like a two-sided coin that can have both oppressive and liberating aspects (Oduyoye, 2001, 29). For women in Malawi, oppressive aspects of culture include the treatment of women as second-class citizens and the ignoring of their rights. In Malawi, there are both patrilineal and matrilineal practices, but women are generally regarded as inferior to men. 

The church is influenced by the cultural and traditional beliefs and practices of the society in which it exists. For instance, in Malawi’s patrilineal cultures, when a woman gets married, she goes to her husband’s home, and that becomes her home for the rest of her life. When she dies, she is buried there. On the other hand, in Malawi’s matrilineal cultures, when a woman gets married, it is the husband who follows the woman to her village. However, when the husband dies, he cannot be buried in the woman’s village but in his home village. In both patrilineal and matrilineal cultures, women and girls may not participate in decision-making, inherit property, or own land. Hence, “the supposed inferiority of women is institutionalized” (Mlenga, 2008, 6). 

Secondly, due to their biological makeup, women in Malawi may be regarded as unclean, especially during menstruation, pregnancy, and after childbirth. In some places, during menstruation, women are not allowed to cook or to put salt in the food they are preparing, as they are unclean (Mlenga, 2008, 7). After childbirth, some regard women as unclean for a month. In churches, this perspective can be applied to ask, “How can women administer Holy Communion during menstruation when they are unclean?” This attitude has been a hindrance to women to be ordained as ministers in the church and, therefore, to study theology.

Another cultural factor in Malawi that shapes how women are treated is marital status. Women who are single or divorced would not be allowed to study theology. Equally, women who are married find it difficult to go for theological education unless their spouses permit them. The requirement for women to obey the male authorities in their lives makes it difficult for women to join ministry.

These cultural influences made it difficult for the church to allow women to study theology and, subsequently, to lead. Nevertheless, with time and the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the situation has begun to change. Women have been allowed to study theology and to be ordained as ministers of Word and Sacrament.

The Ecumenical Influence in Theological Education for Women

In the 1970s and 1980s, theological education globally was predominantly male; few women could study theology (Labeodan, 2016, 1). Then, in the mid-1980s, the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the World Alliance for Reformed Churches (WARC) started to promote theological education for women in their member churches. (The WARC was the international ecumenical movement for churches from the reformed and presbyterian tradition. In 2010, it merged with Reformed Ecumenical Council (REC) to form the World Communion of Reformed Churches (WCRC).) 

The WCC declared 1988-1998 to be the Ecumenical Decade of Churches in Solidarity with Women. It called churches to be inclusive. The Ecumenical Decade promoted theological education for women for ministry as well as for academia. The Ecumenical Decade aimed at empowering women to be leaders in the church and to challenge oppressive structures. 

One of the impacts of the Ecumenical Decade in Africa was the birth of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians in 1989. It was established in Ghana by Mercy Amba Oduyoye and other African women theologians. The Circle has influenced many African women to study theology. It is particularly interested in encouraging women to study theology and to write about their experiences of faith. Before the establishment of the Circle, it was hard to find theological literature written by African women. This fact meant that the voices of African women were not heard. The mission of the Circle was “to undertake research and publish theological literature written by African women with a special focus on religion and culture.” Through the Circle, African women theologians are mentoring each other and the next generation to study theology and to research, write, and publish theological literature. Partly thanks to this community, in general, the number of women doing theological education has increased, though the number of women in church leadership and as faculty in theological institutions is increasing slowly.

Another impact of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians is the development of African women’s theologies. African women’s theologies are among the African theologies of liberation. such as Black Theology or African Theology of Reconstruction (Gathogo, 2007, 124). African women theologians argue that the experiences of women are different from the experiences of men; for instance, the widowhood rites for a woman or for a man who has lost a spouse are different. A woman who has lost a husband may go through sexual cleansing while a man who has lost a wife does not go through the same (Nyangweso, 2017, 370). Hence, African women need to narrate and reflect theologically on their experiences. African women’s theologies are pluralistic in nature because African women are from diverse backgrounds across culture, language, ethnicity, race, religion, and socioeconomics (Phiri, 2004, 16). African women’s theologies assist African women to understand theological terms, such as Christology, in their context.

In 2001, the WARC established the Theological Education Scholarship Fund for Women in the South. The scholarship has encouraged women in member churches to study theology and to be ordained. It provides opportunities for women to do a first degree or a diploma in their country or region, to study theology for ministry.

Challenges Women Face in Theological Education in the CCAP

Women seeking theological education and leadership in the CCAP still face challenges – just as do women in churches globally. The CCAP has grown numerically over the years, and it now has several theological institutions. Currently, apart from the joint theological institution, Zomba Theological University, each synod in the CCAP has its own theological institution. Although women are allowed to study theology in these institutions, they encounter some remaining barriers.

Lack of inclusiveness in theological education

Theological institutions in the CCAP have yet to develop to be inclusive of men and women, old and young, in every aspect of the institution (Oduyoye, 2013, xxiv). Women still do not have equal rights. For instance, in the CCAP’s theological institutions, there may be only one or even no female lecturer among the teaching staff. This lack of role models discourages women who want to study theology. Another issue is that the language used in theological curricula is not inclusive, so women may feel implicitly excluded from theology when they read textbooks or listen to lectures.

Lack of adept theological response to emerging issues

Emerging issues of politics, religion, culture, and society are challenging people’s identities and spiritualities. Theological institutions need to rethink their theologies in order to address these issues so that African theology can continue to be relevant. An example of an emerging issue that needs to be addressed in theological curricula is gender-based violence. In particular, curricula should be updated to answer issues that affect women in the church.

Conclusion

Excluding women from theological education leads to a huge loss of the potential that God gives to women, a potential that could be useful for evangelism and spiritual growth. This paper has shown that women in the CCAP have faced various barriers to studying theology, but that over the years, the CCAP has moved from being an exclusive church to being an inclusive church. The CCAP now nurtures the spiritual gifts of women; it has addressed some of the reasons that led it to ban women from studying theology and leading in the church.

Nevertheless, the CCAP needs to encourage more women to study theology, not just for ministry but also to work in theological institutions to be mentors and role models to young women. Most importantly, the CCAP’s theological institutions should strive to use inclusive language in their curricula and to rewrite curricula to address the current times directly. 

Author Bio: Rev. Dr. Mwawi N. Chilongozi holds a PhD in Practical Theology from Stellenbosch University in South Africa. Currently, she is the Secretary General of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP) General Assembly. Rev. Dr. Chilongozi is a Research Fellow at the Faculty of Theology at Stellenbosch University.

References

Chifungo, Phoebe Faith. Women in the CCAP Nkhoma Synod: A Practical Theological Study of their Leadership Roles. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Stellenbosch University, 2014.

Gathogo, Julius. “A Survey of an African Theology of Reconstruction (ATOR).” Swedish Missiological Themes 95(2): 123-148. 2007.

Labeodan, Hellen A. “Revisiting the Legacy of the Circle of Concerned African Women  Theologians today: A lesson in Strength and Perseverance.” Verbum et Ecclesia  37(2): 1-6. 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ve.v37:2.1586.

Mapala, Cogitator W.Y. “CCAP Ministerial Training.” In Kenneth R. Ross and Mwawi N. Chilongozi, eds., The Church of Central Africa Presbyterian 1924-2004: A Centenary Assessment. Malawi: Mzuni Press, 2024.

Mlenga, Joyce D. Women in Holy Ministry in the CCAP Synod of Livingstonia: A study perception. Zomba: Kachere, 2008. 6.

Nyangweso, M. “Religion, Human Rights and the African Widow.” Peace Human Rights Governance 1(3): 365-391.

Oduyoye, Mercy Amba. Introducing African Women’s Theology. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001.

–. “Foreword.” In Isabel Apawo Phiri & Dietrich Werner, eds., Handbook of Theological Education in Africa. Oxford: Regnum, 2013

Parsons, Jane Wagner. “Scots and Afrikaners in Central Africa: Andrew Charles Murray and the Dutch Reformed Mission in Malawi.” In Klaus Fiedler & Kenneth R. Ross, eds., Christianity in Malawi: A Reader. Malawi: Mzuni Press, 2021.

Phiri, Isabel Apawo. Women, Presbyterian and Patriarchy: Religious Experience of Chewa Women in Central Malawi. Blantyre: CLAIM, 1997.

–. “African Women’s Theologies in the New Millennium.” Agenda Empowering Women for Gender Equity 61(2004): 16-24.

Ross, Kenneth R. “Malawi and Scotland: Together in the Talking Place 1859.” Malawi: Mzuni Press, 2013.